Fortification of Plant-Based Milk with Calcium May Reduce Vitamin D Bioaccessibility: An <i>In Vitro</i> Digestion Study

Abstract

Many plant-based milks lack key micronutrients found in bovine milk, such as calcium and vitamin D. In this study, we fortified almond milk with these two micronutrients and used a standardized gastrointestinal model to examine the impact of product formulation on their bioaccessibility. The impact of different forms (CaCl₂ versus CaCO₃) and concentrations (0, 1, or 2 g per 240 mL) of calcium on the physicochemical properties, lipid digestibility, and vitamin D bioaccessibility was examined. Soluble calcium (CaCl₂) promoted particle aggregation by reducing the electrostatic repulsion, while colloidal calcium (CaCO₃) did not because there were fewer free calcium ions. High levels of calcium (soluble or insoluble) reduced vitamin D bioaccessibility, which was attributed to insoluble calcium soap formation in the small intestine. Calcium bioaccessibility was higher for CaCO₃ than CaCl₂. These findings are useful for the development of nutritionally fortified plant-based milks with improved physicochemical and nutritional properties.